An impediment in the development of anti-cancer modalities is the dearth of methods for evaluating the effectiveness of such treatments. Accordingly, there has been interest in finding biomarkers and other surrogate endpoints that may substitute for clinical endpoints, especially for the evaluation of treatments whose outcomes do not become evident for many years. However, limitations of current surrogate endpoint validation techniques include a general failure in predicting outcome in treating diseases that are multifactorial in terms of the physiological and/or behavioral changes that may occur in populations suffering from the disease. Thus, there is currently a need to develop more effective techniques for identification of surrogate endpoints, for surrogate endpoint analysis, for using surrogate endpoints in clinical trials of experimental treatment regimens, and for monitoring the effectiveness of established treatment regimens in the practice of medicine.